Post by ajk on Oct 16, 2009 11:53:09 GMT -5
I came across some useful historical information that I thought I'd post here on the board. It's from the Lee Ki-baek book A New History of Korea (Ilchokak Publishers, 1984; pages 120-122), and it explains the basics about the Goryeo land system and the Stipend Land Law. We're encountering this stuff in the series right now, and reading this excerpt is very helpful in understanding just what the royal court is arguing about.
(I'll point out right up front that according to the book, the assessment rate on public lands was 25 percent, not 10 percent as we heard in the series. Not sure what the reason for this is. If anybody has other sources and can confirm one rate or the other, I'd sure appreciate it. That's quite a significant difference in policy and I'd like to know which figure is correct.)
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The Land System
The so-called Stipend Land Law (chonsikwa) occupied a central position in the Koryo land system. The Stipend Land Law evolved from the yokpunjon system of 940, which had allocated grants of land as rewards for merit following the reunification. Although the term chonsikwa was first used in 976, at that time it still retained the character of land grants to a privileged few. Finally in 998, the first year of King Mokjong, a comprehensive system was instituted, allocating land in eighteen stipend grades based on the office rank structure created three years earlier under King Sungjong. The land allocated to an official in accordance with the provisions of the Stipend Land Law thus constituted his salary. Consequently, when an official died the allocated land was to be returned to the state. Furthermore, the collection of land rents was managed by the state, and direct collection by officials was not permitted. The Stipend Land Law also provided for "soldier's land" (kuninjon) to be given to those peasant families enrolled in the soldiering order.
Besides such stipend land, so-called "privileged merit land" (kongumjon) also was an important form of remuneration for higher officials. This generally was given in graded amounts to those of the fifth rank or above as grants in perpetuity (yongopchon), and it thus could be bequeathed to one's descendants [or] disposed of at will. Kongumjon was cultivated by tenant farmers and the grantee collected the rent on his own authority. Thus this land in effect was privately owned, and it may be said to have provided firmer support for aristocratic class status than did office-holding itself. LIke enabling sons of fifth- and higher-rank officials to automatically obtain appointments, the purpose of Kongumjon was to help perpetuate the privileged position of the high aristocracy.
Allocations of land to local government functionaries and to soldiers also were significant. The former were given "local service land" (oeyokchon) to compensate them for the duties they undertook. And just as their services were a hereditary responsibility, so was this land inheritable and thus may be termed land granted in perpetuity. Since they were able to collect the rents themselves, moreover, this land too was tantamount to private land. "Soldier's land" (kuninjon) was land given in compensation for military service. Although the regulations governing allocation of soldier's land were incorporated into the Stipend Land Law, soldier's land was different in character from stipend land. It was inheritable, since the military service obligation was hereditary, and "support households" were attached to each soldier to cultivate his land. However, if a soldier had no son or grandson to carry on his obligations when he retired from active service, he was made to return his soldier's land and was given instead a modest pension land allocation (kubunjon) for his support. Such pension land also was given to families of officials and deceased soldiers, including war widows, who had no means of livelihood.
In addition there was "royal estate land" (naejangjon) that belonged to the palace; although in effect privately held by the royal household, this land had the peculiarity of being managed through special administrative districts. Finally, "public agency land" (konghaejon) was allotted to cover the expenses of government offices, and there were [other] lands owned by monasteries or temples.
Economic Underpinning of the Aristocratic Class
The Koryo land system reflected the underlying premise that all land in the country was the king's land. This was an extremely idealistic concept, however, and it did not mean that all land was owned by the state. To be sure, there was "public land" (kongjon) that the state directly managed. The rents from this land were transported to Kaesong by ship and were used for public expenditures, the foremost of which was official salaries. Although the income from stipend land went to individual officials, since the state collected the rents for them and since the land reverted to the state when officials died, it too may be included in the category of "public land." In other words, this "public" land had the character of providing economic benefits to that key segment of the "public" consisting of the aristocracy as a whole.
In contrast to this, there was "private land" (sajon) that served the private interests of the individual aristocrat. This is demonstrated most graphically by the "privileged merit land" (kongumjon). Nominally such land was allocated by the state in the same manner as the various kinds of stipend land, but in reality the recipient could bequeath it of freely dispose of it, and he could also collect the rents directly. Therefore it was the same as privately owned land, and this is one reason why it also was called yongopchon ("land held in perpetuity"). "Local service land" (oeyokchon) and "soldier's land" (kuninjon) were also youngopchon, but these were received as payment for service to the state and so, although the could be passed on to one's descendants, they could not be disposed of otherwise. Monastery and temple lands were not called yongopchon but were no different in character. All these varieties of "private land," despite the existence of minor hindrances, in effect were the same as privately owned land.
As the power of the aristocracy grew, "stipend land" like "merit land" came to be inherited, and it turned into private land from which rents were collected directly by the aristocrats. And by such stratagems as reclaiming wasteland, by receiving special grants from the king, or by seizing the land of others by force, the aristocracy increased its holdings of private land still further. The rents from private land, in contrast to the 25% rate on public land, amounted to half the harvest, in accordance with the prevalent crop sharing system. This is why the aristocrats were particularly interested in accumulating private land. Built on a foundation of private landholding, the fortunes of the aristocracy steadily grew fatter.
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(I'll point out right up front that according to the book, the assessment rate on public lands was 25 percent, not 10 percent as we heard in the series. Not sure what the reason for this is. If anybody has other sources and can confirm one rate or the other, I'd sure appreciate it. That's quite a significant difference in policy and I'd like to know which figure is correct.)
---------------------------------------------------
The Land System
The so-called Stipend Land Law (chonsikwa) occupied a central position in the Koryo land system. The Stipend Land Law evolved from the yokpunjon system of 940, which had allocated grants of land as rewards for merit following the reunification. Although the term chonsikwa was first used in 976, at that time it still retained the character of land grants to a privileged few. Finally in 998, the first year of King Mokjong, a comprehensive system was instituted, allocating land in eighteen stipend grades based on the office rank structure created three years earlier under King Sungjong. The land allocated to an official in accordance with the provisions of the Stipend Land Law thus constituted his salary. Consequently, when an official died the allocated land was to be returned to the state. Furthermore, the collection of land rents was managed by the state, and direct collection by officials was not permitted. The Stipend Land Law also provided for "soldier's land" (kuninjon) to be given to those peasant families enrolled in the soldiering order.
Besides such stipend land, so-called "privileged merit land" (kongumjon) also was an important form of remuneration for higher officials. This generally was given in graded amounts to those of the fifth rank or above as grants in perpetuity (yongopchon), and it thus could be bequeathed to one's descendants [or] disposed of at will. Kongumjon was cultivated by tenant farmers and the grantee collected the rent on his own authority. Thus this land in effect was privately owned, and it may be said to have provided firmer support for aristocratic class status than did office-holding itself. LIke enabling sons of fifth- and higher-rank officials to automatically obtain appointments, the purpose of Kongumjon was to help perpetuate the privileged position of the high aristocracy.
Allocations of land to local government functionaries and to soldiers also were significant. The former were given "local service land" (oeyokchon) to compensate them for the duties they undertook. And just as their services were a hereditary responsibility, so was this land inheritable and thus may be termed land granted in perpetuity. Since they were able to collect the rents themselves, moreover, this land too was tantamount to private land. "Soldier's land" (kuninjon) was land given in compensation for military service. Although the regulations governing allocation of soldier's land were incorporated into the Stipend Land Law, soldier's land was different in character from stipend land. It was inheritable, since the military service obligation was hereditary, and "support households" were attached to each soldier to cultivate his land. However, if a soldier had no son or grandson to carry on his obligations when he retired from active service, he was made to return his soldier's land and was given instead a modest pension land allocation (kubunjon) for his support. Such pension land also was given to families of officials and deceased soldiers, including war widows, who had no means of livelihood.
In addition there was "royal estate land" (naejangjon) that belonged to the palace; although in effect privately held by the royal household, this land had the peculiarity of being managed through special administrative districts. Finally, "public agency land" (konghaejon) was allotted to cover the expenses of government offices, and there were [other] lands owned by monasteries or temples.
Economic Underpinning of the Aristocratic Class
The Koryo land system reflected the underlying premise that all land in the country was the king's land. This was an extremely idealistic concept, however, and it did not mean that all land was owned by the state. To be sure, there was "public land" (kongjon) that the state directly managed. The rents from this land were transported to Kaesong by ship and were used for public expenditures, the foremost of which was official salaries. Although the income from stipend land went to individual officials, since the state collected the rents for them and since the land reverted to the state when officials died, it too may be included in the category of "public land." In other words, this "public" land had the character of providing economic benefits to that key segment of the "public" consisting of the aristocracy as a whole.
In contrast to this, there was "private land" (sajon) that served the private interests of the individual aristocrat. This is demonstrated most graphically by the "privileged merit land" (kongumjon). Nominally such land was allocated by the state in the same manner as the various kinds of stipend land, but in reality the recipient could bequeath it of freely dispose of it, and he could also collect the rents directly. Therefore it was the same as privately owned land, and this is one reason why it also was called yongopchon ("land held in perpetuity"). "Local service land" (oeyokchon) and "soldier's land" (kuninjon) were also youngopchon, but these were received as payment for service to the state and so, although the could be passed on to one's descendants, they could not be disposed of otherwise. Monastery and temple lands were not called yongopchon but were no different in character. All these varieties of "private land," despite the existence of minor hindrances, in effect were the same as privately owned land.
As the power of the aristocracy grew, "stipend land" like "merit land" came to be inherited, and it turned into private land from which rents were collected directly by the aristocrats. And by such stratagems as reclaiming wasteland, by receiving special grants from the king, or by seizing the land of others by force, the aristocracy increased its holdings of private land still further. The rents from private land, in contrast to the 25% rate on public land, amounted to half the harvest, in accordance with the prevalent crop sharing system. This is why the aristocrats were particularly interested in accumulating private land. Built on a foundation of private landholding, the fortunes of the aristocracy steadily grew fatter.
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